10 million. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), there are approximately 10 million stateless people in the world. Stateless individuals are not considered citizens by any country, which severely limits their access to basic rights and services. That’s 10 million people similar to Mehran Karimi Nasseri, the man who inspired the movie Terminal, who lived in Charles De Gaulle Airport in Paris for 18 years (he’s the only airport dweller to my knowledge).
There are actually many more people who struggle with citizenship when you take into account migration and asylum seekers. In 2020, the UNHCR reported that there were over 82.4 million forcibly displaced people worldwide, including refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers. Many of these individuals seek new citizenship in their host countries
These stateless people along with many others, apply for citizenship or residency in countries other than their birth country. Citizenship has incredible humanitarian and economic impact. Yet, citizenship isn’t a one-size-fits-all concept; its nature and privileges shift from one nation to another, and sometimes, even within the borders of the same country, it can diverge significantly.
Tiered citizenship, a system granting different rights and privileges to distinct groups within a nation, is a concept both contentious and crucial for grasping the socio-political and economic fabric of many countries. This article delves into its pros and cons, examines its implementation, and unveils key statistics and influences shaping these systems.
Overview of Tiered Citizenship
historical context
The idea of tiered citizenship is not new; it has roots in various forms of governance throughout history. From the Roman Empire’s differentiation between citizens and non-citizens to colonial-era policies distinguishing between settlers and indigenous populations, tiered citizenship has evolved to address complex societal structures. In the modern era, tiered citizenship systems have been formalized to reflect political, economic, and social priorities.
modern examples
Today, several countries employ tiered citizenship systems. China’s Hukou system, for instance, controls internal migration and access to services based on one’s registered place of residence.
In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), full citizenship is generally restricted to native Emiratis, while long-term expatriates have limited rights. Expatriates, who make up around 88% of the population, contribute substantially to the economy but lack political rights and face stringent residency regulations.
India’s affirmative action policies create tiers within citizenship based on caste and tribe designations.
Israel differentiates between Jewish citizens and Arab Israelis, impacting their rights and privileges. Arab Israelis, comprising about 20% of the population, experience disparities in various sectors, including housing, education, and employment.
Malaysia grants special privileges to Bumiputera (ethnic Malays and indigenous people), distinguishing them from non-Bumiputera citizens.
pluses of tiered citizenship
Cultural Preservation
One of the key arguments in favor of tiered citizenship is cultural preservation. By granting specific rights and privileges to certain groups, governments can protect and promote cultural identities. In Malaysia, for instance, Bumiputera policies aim to preserve Malay culture and ensure that indigenous populations maintain a significant presence and influence in the country. This approach helps prevent cultural erosion in an increasingly globalized world.
economic benefits
Tiered citizenship can also lead to economic benefits, particularly through targeted affirmative action. In India, reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in education and employment aim to uplift historically marginalized groups. This kind of economic redistribution can help level the playing field, providing opportunities to those who might otherwise be left behind. By focusing resources and opportunities on disadvantaged groups, countries can foster a more equitable society.
Studies show that obtaining citizenship can significantly improve economic outcomes for individuals. For example, naturalized citizens in the United States tend to have higher incomes and better employment prospects compared to non-citizens.
social stability
Some argue that tiered citizenship contributes to social stability. By recognizing and addressing the distinct needs and identities of various groups within a country, governments can mitigate conflicts and tensions.
In the UAE, the clear distinction between native Emiratis and expatriates helps maintain social order and control. The system ensures that native citizens retain primary control over the country’s resources and governance, which can prevent social unrest and maintain a stable society.
Tiered citizenship systems, while often criticized, do present certain advantages. They can preserve cultural identities, provide economic benefits through targeted policies, and contribute to social stability.
minuses of tiered citizenship
social inequality
Tiered citizenship can exacerbate social inequality, creating a stratified society where certain groups are privileged over others. This stratification often leads to systemic discrimination and marginalization.
Naturalization, the legal process through which a non-citizen acquires citizenship, is one way to address these disparities. However, the requirements for naturalization can be stringent and vary widely by country. For instance, Canada had a naturalization rate of approximately 85% among its immigrant population, one of the highest in the world. Conversely, some countries in the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE, have very low naturalization rates for their large expatriate populations. As many know, in the United States, applicants must demonstrate continuous residency, proficiency in English, and knowledge of U.S. history and government. While naturalization offers a path to full citizenship, the process can be lengthy and challenging, leaving many non-citizens in a precarious position for years.
In Israel, Arab Israelis face significant disparities in housing, education, and employment compared to Jewish citizens. This unequal treatment fosters resentment and social tension, undermining the country’s social cohesion.
human rights concerns
Tiered citizenship systems frequently raise human rights concerns. By denying certain groups full citizenship rights, countries may violate international human rights standards.
In the UAE, long-term expatriates, despite contributing significantly to the economy, lack basic rights such as political participation and permanent residency security. This denial of rights can lead to exploitation and abuse, with little recourse for affected individuals.
economic disparities
Economic disparities are another major downside of tiered citizenship. Lower-tier citizens often face restricted access to resources and opportunities, perpetuating cycles of poverty and disadvantage. In China, the Hukou system restricts rural migrants’ access to urban public services like education and healthcare, trapping them in low-wage jobs and poor living conditions. This systemic inequality hampers overall economic development and exacerbates rural-urban divides.
perpetuation of historical injustices
Tiered citizenship can perpetuate historical injustices by institutionalizing past discrimination. In India, while affirmative action policies aim to redress historical wrongs, they also entrench caste divisions and can lead to backlash from non-beneficiary groups. Critics argue that these policies reinforce caste identities rather than fostering a more integrated society. Similarly, in Malaysia, Bumiputera policies intended to uplift ethnic Malays often alienate non-Bumiputera citizens, fostering inter-ethnic tension and resentment.
impact on national unity
A tiered citizenship system can undermine national unity by emphasizing differences rather than commonalities. In countries like Malaysia and Israel, policies that favor one group over another can lead to social fragmentation.
In Malaysia, Bumiputera policies have increased university enrollment among Malays from 5% in 1970 to over 80% today. However, income inequality remains a challenge, as non-Bumiputera citizens often feel economically sidelined.
Reports from the Institute for Democracy and Economic Affairs (IDEAS) suggest that while Bumiputera policies have uplifted many, a more merit-based approach could benefit the entire nation.
When citizens perceive that the government is unfairly privileging certain groups, it can weaken their sense of national identity and loyalty. This division can be particularly damaging in times of national crisis, when unity and collective action are crucial.
influences of tiered citizenship
political influences
Tiered citizenship shapes political landscapes significantly. In countries like Israel, the differentiated treatment of citizens influences electoral outcomes and policy decisions. Arab Israelis often have less political power, which affects their ability to advocate for their interests. In Malaysia, Bumiputera policies ensure political dominance of ethnic Malays, impacting national policies and governance.
economic influences
Economically, tiered citizenship systems can create both growth and disparity. In India, affirmative action has increased educational and employment opportunities for marginalized groups, contributing to economic development. However, in the UAE, the limited rights of expatriates can lead to economic inefficiencies and exploitation, which may hinder long-term economic sustainability.
In countries like the UAE, the influx of expatriate workers fills critical labor gaps, enabling swift urban growth and infrastructure expansion. This is also observed in China and India, where large-scale urban projects often rely on a flexible and transient labor force to meet the dynamic needs of urban development. In China, a portion of the urban labor pool often comes from migrant workers with a rural hukou status. However, this reliance on a transient labor pool with limited rights can lead to social stratification and economic volatility, as the long-term integration and well-being of these workers are often overlooked. This “just-in-time urbanization,” a phenomenon where rapid urban development matches the immediate labor needs of a city, often arises as a second-order effect of tiered citizenship.1
social influences
Socially, tiered citizenship can either foster cohesion or division. In Malaysia, the focus on Bumiputera rights aims to promote social stability, but it also creates ethnic tensions. In China, the Hukou system perpetuates urban-rural divides, impacting social harmony. The emphasis on certain groups over others can lead to resentment and social unrest, undermining national unity.
conclusion
Tiered citizenship systems are complex and multifaceted, offering both benefits and drawbacks. They can help preserve cultural identities, provide economic upliftment through targeted policies, and contribute to social stability. However, they also perpetuate social inequality, raise human rights concerns, and undermine national unity.
Despite these issues within countries, the acceptance of dual citizenship has been on the rise. According to the Migration Policy Institute, over 100 countries allow some form of dual citizenship. This trend reflects the growing recognition of global mobility and interconnectedness.
The future of tiered citizenship will likely involve balancing these benefits and drawbacks. Policymakers need to consider reforms that promote inclusivity and equality while addressing the unique needs of different population groups. As global dynamics evolve, the debate around tiered citizenship will continue to be a critical aspect of discussions on social justice, economic development, and national identity.
unpublished alpha 